Articles in Articles

By Irina Kostyukovich, English teacher, Primakov School

Articles are three tricky words: ‘the’ (called the definite article),
 ‘a’ and ‘an’ (together referred to as indefinite articles). 
If you are unsure when to use these words and when to avoid them, you are not alone.

Using Articles (A, An, The). STUDYSmarter Survival Guide UWA

So what makes articles so confusing? To begin with, there are no articles or identical parts of speech in Russian. Besides, we don’t translate them, and that’s why we keep asking ourselves why we should use them in English at all. Although there are many rules, they are hard to apply for a non-native speaker of English. Moreover, there are numerous exceptions to the rules, which seems to make all our attempts to understand the use of articles pointless. To draw the line, by many learners articles are often taken as the most confusing element of English grammar. However, let us look at articles from another angle - through the context analysis. I will remind you of the rules and then provide examples with the analysis of the use of articles.

Back to school rules

We use a/an to modify non-specific or non-particular singular countable nouns:

•  with there is/have and have got
•  with an occupation, class, group, or type somebody or something belongs to
• the first time we mention something.

Basically, we use a/an whenever we cannot say “You know which I mean.”

We use the both with countable and uncountable nouns, singular or plural:

• when we have already mentioned what we're talking about
• when there is only one of something
• in superlative expressions and ordinal numerals
• with adjectives like rich, poor, elderly, unemployed, etc. to talk about groups of people.

Basically, we use the whenever we can say “You know which I mean.”

To add to this, there are a lot of subrules, for instance:

• we use a/an with the sense of “every” in expressions of time and quantity
• we use the to speak about leisure activities/forms of entertainment/travel
• we use the in the names of items in particular categories.

There is a series of expressions (names of meals/time expressions/names of particular institutions, etc.) where no article is used: breakfast/lunch/dinner, at midnight, Oxford University, etc. Uncountable nouns do not require a/an either.

That being said, suppose we learn, remember, and practice the use of the rules, will it be enough to sound natural in academic writing? The answer is negative. It is the context that determines the use of articles. Articles convey certain meanings and thus can facilitate the readers’ understanding of the author’s ideas and concepts.

Articles in context

Context is often defined as “information that helps the message of a text make sense. Context includes the environment of a particular subject area, the genres relatable to a particular subject area, approaches to presenting research in a particular subject area.” Conscious use of articles in context helps the author to get the message across. For example, let us consider the simplest case – the use of the or a with a singular countable noun.

Cf. The price of the product will not change if there is equilibrium between the supply and the demand for that product.* (A particular, specific product is meant.)

The price of a product will not change if there is equilibrium between the supply and the demand for that product. (Any product is meant.)

If we delve into the rules, focusing on countability/uncountability and singularity/ plurality in academic writing, we will discover a few more useful tips to master the use of articles. 

Countable singular nouns

We use a/an with singular countable nouns to indicate that something is not common ground, to announce that we are introducing something new, something unexpected, or something that the reader is unaware of. 

E.g. This article intends to provide an overview on the current knowledge on promises and safety concerns of NMN as an anti-aging health product. (New information on NMN as one of anti-aging health products is introduced.)

We use the when we refer to a specific item or notion that has been previously mentioned, or when there is an expectation that the reader will recognize what the author is speaking about. 

E.g. From the above review, it can be seen that only very few pre-clinical and clinical studies have been conducted to investigate the safety of long-term administration of NMN. (The author is speaking about “the above review” that readers have already studied and “the safety” mentioned in the introduction to the article.)

In another example, it is also essential to pay attention to the information in the relative clause. 

E.g. The mitochondrial decay, which is responsible for aging, can be reversed by the increased levels of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+). (In “the mitochondrial decay” the definite article signals that the process mentioned is specified, which can be seen in the following relative clause “which is responsible for aging.” The definite article in “the increased levels” refers readers to the particular data mentioned previously.) 

Countable plural nouns

Plural countable nouns do not require the definite article unless they represent some particular items, features, etc. Have a look at the following example and try to explain why there is no article before “different classes,” while in “the different groups” the definite article is necessary.   

E.g. NPs are tiny materials having size ranges from 1 to 100 nm. They can be classified into different classes based on their properties, shapes or sizes. The different groups include fullerenes, metal NPs, ceramic NPs, and polymeric NPs. (At first the author introduces “different classes” as a general concept and then specifies them using a synonym “groups.”  The definite article helps to convey this idea of what those particular groups include.) 

Uncountable nouns

Uncountable nouns might require the or no article depending on the context. Uncountable nouns are used without an article when expressing a general idea, but require the referring backwards to to something already mentioned or some shared experience.

E.g.  Wide literature is available, where people used this technique to study not only the morphology of their nanomaterials, but also the dispersion of NPs in the bulk or matrix… The literature revealed that NPs perform best when the size is <critical value i.e. 10–20 nm (Reiss and Hütten, 2005). (The author mentions “wide literature” to convey the idea that there has been research on the subject matter, no article is required here. Further in the text, the author refers to particular studies and the uncountable noun “literature” is used with the definite article.)

Let’s try to apply the rules, considering the context. Fill out articles in two excerpts, then read the explanations to see whether your answers are correct.

Excerpt 1. It sets up 1__ reward system so that 2 __ researchers who are aiming to maximize their own rewards also maximize 3 __ objective function of 4__ research supervisory body, through their submission decisions. 5__ model is calibrated to 6__ reward scheme introduced within 7 __ Polish higher education reform in 2018, for which 8 __ series of policy recommendations is given.

Exerpt 2. 1 __ function of 2 __ British Iron Age “horn caps” has puzzled 3 __ scholars for 4 __ centuries. These hollow bronze objects were made from at least 5 __ fourth century BC and were mounted on thin wooden shafts. Drawing on 6 __ contextual evidence for 7 __ objects and 8 __ small number of comparable continental finds, it is suggested here that 9 __ caps were 10 __ terminals of 11 __ goads used by 12 __ drivers of horse-drawn vehicles. Although 13 __ Celtic chariot and 14 __ graves in which they were sometimes placed have attracted 15 __ great attention, 16 __ driver and 17 __ horses have been largely overlooked. 18 __ drivers may well have also been 19__ horses’ grooms and could have been servants.

Now that you’ve completed the task, compare your results with the key and read the explanations. 

Excerpt 1. It sets up 1 a (a new) reward system so that 2 – (all) researchers who are aiming to maximize their own rewards also maximize 3 the (exactly the objective) function of 4 the (that particular) research supervisory body, through their submission decisions. 5 The (the abovementioned) model is calibrated to 6 the (that particular) reward scheme introduced within 7 the (determined by the year) Polish higher education reform in 2018, for which 8 a (some) series of policy recommendations is given. 

So the author connects a new reward system to the reward system that already exists.

Excerpt 2. 1 The (the function of the horn caps under consideration; the object is specified) function of 2 – (the whole period in general) British Iron Age “horn caps” has puzzled 3 – (all) scholars for 4 – (not specified centuries) centuries. These hollow bronze objects were made from at least 5 the (an ordinal number) fourth century BC and were mounted on thin wooden shafts. Drawing on 6 the (particular context for those items) contextual evidence for 7 the (the items under consideration) objects and 8 the (the scarce known findings) small number of comparable continental finds, it is suggested here that 9 the (those particular items) caps were 10 the (those particular ones) terminals of 11 the (those particular goads which were used by the drivers) goads used by 12 the (specifically those drivers who drove horse-drawn vehicles) drivers of horse-drawn vehicles. Although 13 the (reference to the horse-drawn vehicles) Celtic chariot and 14 the (the ones under consideration) graves in which they were sometimes placed have attracted 15 – (uncountable, attention in general) great attention, 16 the (collective noun) driver and 17 the (the ones from the grave) horses have been largely overlooked. 18 The (the ones mentioned above) drivers may well have also been 19 the (the ones mentioned above) horses’ grooms and could have been servants.

That research article is focused on particular exhibits, the “horn caps,” and the research connected to them. That is why the abundance of the is not surprising as the use of the definite articles is justified by the context. The author speaks about particular archeological findings known to the reader, and those objects which are well-known to the specialists in the field.

Strategies that work

On a final note, there are a few strategies that will enable you to master articles in writing. The flowchart below is a simple but effective algorithm to help you use articles sensibly and consciously. Whenever in doubt, ask yourself the suggested questions and think about the context.

Articles are a challenge; however, it’s possible to understand what way to use them in a particular context. Mainly, they serve to differentiate between known and new information, which is essential for better comprehension. Understanding the rules that govern the use of articles will not only improve your language skills but also boost your confidence and allow you to get your message across in an accurate and precise way. 

Useful resources

Academic Marker. An online support platform for advanced English and academic success
https://academicmarker.com/grammar-practice/words/word-types/determiners/articles/what-are-the-rules-for-using-definite-articles-in-english/

Grammar Party. A blog about grammar, punctuation, vocabulary... and sometimes cats
https://grammarpartyblog.com/

Anderson, S. (2022, September 20). “How To Use Articles In Academic Writing.” TRINKA.
https://www.trinka.ai/blog/how-to-use-articles-in-academic-writing/ 

Purdue University Writing Lab. Useful links for students and teachers, special materials to help teachers introduce students to the university's services
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/grammar/using_articles.html

* All the examples are taken from these sources

Nadeeshani,H. (2022, March). “Nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) as an anti-aging health product – Promises and safety concerns.”  https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2090123221001491

Khan, I. (2019, November). “Nanoparticles: Properties, applications and toxicities.”
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1878535217300990?via%3Dihub 

Charemza, W., Lewandowski, M., Woźny, L. (2021, February). “Efficiency in rewarding academic journal publications. The case of Poland.”
https://cor.sgh.waw.pl/bitstream/handle/20.500.12182/1116/WPKAE_2021_062.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y

Rebay-Salisbury, K. (2018, March). “Horses, Wagons, and Chariots.”
https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34750/chapter-abstract/296605378?redirectedFrom=fulltext

MasterClass is a streaming platform which provides courses in a wide range of disciplines  for students of all levels
https://www.masterclass.com/articles/why-is-context-important-in-writing